The Backbone of Global Climate Action: What Is the 2015 Paris Agreement and What Does It Aim to Achieve?

The climate is changing rapidly, and its effects are becoming increasingly visible around the world.

Extreme weather events, prolonged droughts, heatwaves, floods, and destructive wildfires are affecting ecosystems, communities, and economies with growing frequency and intensity.

The climate crisis is a global threat that requires coordinated global action. The Paris Agreement provides the central international framework for countries to address this challenge collectively.

In this article, we examine the international climate framework that preceded the Paris Agreement, explain what the Agreement covers, and explore Türkiye's commitments and contribution to its implementation.

What Came Before the Paris Agreement?

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, commonly known as the UNFCCC, established the foundation of modern international climate cooperation.

The Convention was adopted in 1992 and opened for signature at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, also known as the Rio Earth Summit.

It entered into force on 21 March 1994.

The primary objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that prevents dangerous human interference with the climate system. ⁽¹⁾

The Convention established a shared international framework for:

• monitoring greenhouse gas emissions,
• developing national climate policies,
• supporting international cooperation,
• providing financial and technological assistance,
• negotiating further climate agreements.

Although the UNFCCC created important principles and reporting responsibilities, it did not establish binding emission reduction targets for every participating country.

Further negotiations were therefore required to translate its general commitments into more specific action.

What Is the United Nations Climate Change Conference?

The annual meetings held under the UNFCCC are known as the Conference of the Parties, or COP.

The first conference, COP1, was held in Berlin in 1995.

Angela Merkel, who was Germany's Federal Minister for the Environment at the time, chaired the conference.

COP meetings bring together governments, international institutions, civil society organizations, scientists, businesses, and other stakeholders to evaluate progress and negotiate global climate policies.

At COP1, countries concluded that the commitments established under the UNFCCC were not sufficient.

The resulting Berlin Mandate launched negotiations for a stronger agreement containing quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments for industrialized countries.

These negotiations eventually produced the Kyoto Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at COP3 in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997.

It was the first international climate agreement to establish legally binding greenhouse gas reduction targets for industrialized countries and economies in transition.

Under its first commitment period, participating developed countries agreed to reduce their combined greenhouse gas emissions by an average of at least 5% below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012. ⁽²⁾ Individual targets varied by country.

The United States signed the Protocol but did not ratify it and therefore never became a party.

For the Kyoto Protocol to enter into force, it had to be ratified by:

• at least 55 parties to the UNFCCC,
• including industrialized countries representing at least 55% of their total 1990 carbon dioxide emissions.

These conditions were eventually fulfilled, and the Protocol entered into force on 16 February 2005.

The Kyoto Protocol was an important milestone, but its structure had limitations.

Binding reduction targets applied mainly to developed countries, while many rapidly growing economies did not have equivalent obligations. The absence of the United States also reduced the Protocol's global coverage.

A more inclusive climate agreement was therefore needed—one that involved all countries while recognizing their different circumstances and capabilities.

What Is the Paris Agreement?

The Paris Agreement is an international climate treaty adopted by the parties to the UNFCCC at COP21 in Paris on 12 December 2015.

It entered into force on 4 November 2016 after the required ratification threshold was reached. ⁽³⁾

Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement requires every party to prepare and communicate its own national climate plan.

Its overarching temperature goal is to:

• hold the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels,
• pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C. ⁽³⁾

The 1.5°C threshold has become increasingly important because the risks of severe and irreversible climate impacts increase substantially at higher levels of warming.

The Agreement covers climate change mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology, capacity-building, transparency, and international cooperation.

The Main Goals of the Paris Agreement

Limiting Global Temperature Rise

The Agreement aims to keep global warming well below 2°C and pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5°C compared with pre-industrial levels.

Achieving this goal requires rapid and sustained reductions in global greenhouse gas emissions.

Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Each country prepares a Nationally Determined Contribution, or NDC, outlining the climate action it intends to take.

NDCs may include targets and policies relating to:

• energy,
• industry,
• transportation,
• buildings,
• agriculture,
• waste,
• forestry and land use.

Countries are expected to submit updated NDCs every five years, with each successive plan representing a progression beyond the previous one and reflecting the highest possible level of ambition. ⁽⁴⁾

Strengthening Climate Adaptation

The Agreement recognizes that some effects of climate change can no longer be completely avoided.

Countries are therefore expected to strengthen their ability to:

• prepare for climate-related risks,
• reduce vulnerability,
• protect communities and ecosystems,
• build resilience,
• respond to loss and damage.

Adaptation priorities may include water management, climate-resilient agriculture, disaster preparedness, coastal protection, public health, and ecosystem restoration.

Providing Climate Finance and Support

Developed countries are expected to provide financial resources to assist developing countries with both climate mitigation and adaptation.

The Agreement also encourages wider financial flows, technology transfer, capacity-building, and international cooperation.

Climate finance is particularly important for countries that have contributed relatively little to historical emissions but face significant climate risks.

Improving Transparency and Reporting

The Paris Agreement established an Enhanced Transparency Framework through which countries report their emissions, climate policies, progress toward their NDCs, and support provided or received.

This framework is intended to improve accountability, enable progress to be tracked, and build trust among countries.

Assessing Collective Global Progress

The Agreement includes a Global Stocktake, conducted every five years to assess collective progress toward its long-term goals.

The findings are intended to inform the next round of NDCs and encourage countries to strengthen their climate ambition.

The first Global Stocktake concluded at COP28 in December 2023.

What Does the Paris Agreement Cover?

Countries can express their mitigation targets in different ways depending on their economic structures, national circumstances, development priorities, and emissions profiles.

Common target types include:

• absolute emission reduction targets,
• emission peak targets,
• reductions below a business-as-usual scenario,
• emission intensity targets.

Absolute Emission Reduction

An absolute emission reduction target commits a country or organization to reducing total greenhouse gas emissions relative to a defined base year.

For example, a country may commit to reducing its total emissions by 40% below 1990 levels by 2030.

This type of target directly limits the total quantity of emissions released.

Absolute targets are generally easier to compare because both the baseline and the intended reduction are clearly defined.

Emission Peak Year

An emission peak year is the year in which a country expects its greenhouse gas emissions to reach their highest level before beginning a sustained decline.

For example, a country may state that its emissions will peak before 2030 and decrease thereafter.

The environmental strength of a peak-year commitment depends on:

• how early the peak occurs,
• the level at which emissions peak,
• how rapidly emissions decline afterward.

A later or higher emissions peak can increase the cumulative amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere.

Reduction from a Business-as-Usual Scenario

A business-as-usual, or BAU, target measures emission reductions against a projected future scenario.

The reference scenario estimates how emissions might develop without additional climate policies.

It may be based on assumptions concerning:

• economic growth,
• population,
• energy demand,
• industrial development,
• transportation,
• existing policies,
• technological change.

A country committing to a 30% reduction below BAU may still experience an increase in total emissions if the original reference scenario projected rapid growth.

For this reason, BAU targets should be evaluated alongside the underlying assumptions and the absolute emissions level expected in the target year.

Emission Intensity Target

An emission intensity target aims to reduce emissions relative to a unit of economic activity or production.

Examples include emissions per:

• unit of gross domestic product,
• unit of electricity generated,
• tonne of material produced,
• passenger-kilometre travelled.

A country might commit to reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of GDP by a certain percentage.

This can indicate that economic activity is becoming more carbon-efficient.

However, total emissions may still increase if economic growth is faster than the decline in emissions intensity.

Emission intensity targets are therefore often used alongside absolute reduction or peak-year targets.

How Does the Paris Agreement Work?

The Paris Agreement operates through a recurring cycle designed to increase ambition over time.

This cycle generally includes:

• preparing and communicating an NDC,
• implementing domestic climate policies,
• measuring and reporting progress,
• participating in technical review and international assessment,
• evaluating collective progress through the Global Stocktake,
• submitting a stronger updated NDC.

The Agreement does not impose the same numerical target on every country.

Instead, each party defines its own contribution within the principles of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, taking national circumstances into account.

Countries are expected to make their plans progressively more ambitious rather than weakening previous commitments.

The Paris Agreement and Türkiye

Türkiye signed the Paris Agreement on 22 April 2016.

The Turkish Grand National Assembly approved the Agreement on 6 October 2021, and the ratification decision was published in the Official Gazette on 7 October 2021.

Türkiye deposited its instrument of ratification with the United Nations on 11 October 2021 and became a party to the Agreement 30 days later, on 10 November 2021. ⁽⁵⁾

Türkiye also announced a national target of achieving net-zero emissions by 2053.

Türkiye's Nationally Determined Contribution

Türkiye's initial climate contribution, submitted in 2015, targeted a reduction of up to 21% below a business-as-usual emissions scenario by 2030.

Türkiye submitted its Updated First Nationally Determined Contribution to the UNFCCC in April 2023.

Under the updated NDC, Türkiye committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 41% below the business-as-usual scenario by 2030.

The target corresponds to an emissions level of approximately 695 million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent in 2030.

Türkiye also stated that its emissions are expected to peak by 2038 at the latest. ⁽⁶⁾

Because this is a reduction against a projected reference scenario, the 41% figure should not be interpreted as a 41% reduction below Türkiye's current or historical absolute emissions.

It means that emissions in 2030 are intended to be 41% lower than the level projected under the specified business-as-usual scenario.

Türkiye's Second Nationally Determined Contribution

Türkiye submitted its Second Nationally Determined Contribution, known as NDC 3.0, to the United Nations in November 2025.

The new contribution is based on a target year of 2035.

By 2035, Türkiye commits to achieving an emissions reduction of 466 million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent against the business-as-usual scenario and limiting its total greenhouse gas emissions to 643 million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent. ⁽⁷⁾

The Second NDC covers the economy as a whole, including energy, industry, transport, buildings, agriculture, waste, and land use, land-use change and forestry.

The reference year used in the document is 2018. Türkiye's net greenhouse gas emissions in 2018, including the land use and forestry sector, were stated as 458.8 million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent.

The new NDC was prepared taking into account Türkiye's 2053 net-zero target and the outcomes of the first Global Stocktake.

Türkiye's Climate Policy Framework

Türkiye's updated NDC covers the economy as a whole and includes mitigation and adaptation measures across areas such as:

• energy,
• industry,
• transport,
• buildings,
• agriculture,
• waste,
• land use and forestry.

Its national climate framework also includes:

• the 2053 Net-Zero Emissions Target,
• the Climate Change Mitigation Strategy and Action Plan for 2024–2030,
• the Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan for 2024–2030,
• Türkiye's 2053 Long-Term Climate Strategy.

The mitigation action plan contains strategies relating to renewable energy, energy efficiency, circular economy, low-carbon transport, carbon pricing, sustainable finance, nature-based sinks, and a just transition.

The Paris Rulebook

The detailed rules required to implement the Paris Agreement are collectively known as the Paris Rulebook or the Paris Agreement Work Programme.

These rules cover areas including:

• NDC communication,
• emissions accounting,
• transparency,
• reporting,
• international cooperation,
• the Global Stocktake,
• compliance.

Most of the outstanding elements of the Rulebook were finalized at COP26 in Glasgow in 2021.

The resulting framework provides greater consistency in how countries communicate targets, account for emissions, report progress, and participate in international carbon market mechanisms. ⁽⁸⁾

Why Is the Paris Agreement Important?

The Paris Agreement is the first global climate agreement to bring almost every country into a shared long-term framework.

Its importance lies in several key features:

• all parties are expected to take climate action,
• national plans are renewed in five-year cycles,
• ambition is expected to increase over time,
• mitigation and adaptation are addressed together,
• climate finance and international support are recognized,
• progress is tracked through a common transparency framework,
• collective progress is regularly assessed.

However, the Agreement's effectiveness ultimately depends on the strength and implementation of national policies.

An ambitious target creates limited value unless it is supported by:

• enforceable policies,
• sector-specific road maps,
• sufficient finance,
• credible data,
• institutional capacity,
• transparent monitoring,
• cooperation among governments, companies, and communities.

From International Commitment to Climate Action

The Paris Agreement provides a global direction for addressing the climate crisis, but governments must translate that direction into practical action.

For Türkiye, implementation requires a broad transformation across energy, industry, transportation, buildings, agriculture, waste management, and land use.

Companies also have an important role to play by:

• calculating Scope 1, Scope 2, and Scope 3 emissions,
• setting science-aligned reduction targets,
• improving energy and resource efficiency,
• increasing renewable energy use,
• transforming supply chains,
• developing circular business models,
• protecting and restoring ecosystems,
• transparently reporting climate performance.

The Paris Agreement is therefore both an international diplomatic framework and a guide for national, corporate, and individual climate action.

Its long-term success will depend on whether commitments are converted into measurable emissions reductions, stronger climate resilience, and sustained protection of natural systems.

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References

1. Directorate of Climate Change, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
2. UNFCCC, The Kyoto Protocol
3. UNFCCC, The Paris Agreement
4. UNFCCC, Nationally Determined Contributions
5. Directorate of Climate Change, Paris Agreement
6. Directorate of Climate Change, Updated First Nationally Determined Contribution
7. Directorate of Climate Change, Türkiye's Second Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC 3.0)
8. UNFCCC, The Glasgow Climate Pact: Key Outcomes from COP26

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